| Abstract (english) | The majority of archaeological inventory consists of items made from perishable materials, such as wood, leather, and fabric. However, most of these items remain unnoticed during archaeological excavations because they often decay over time. Despite their perishable nature, these materials have been used and processed since prehistory to create various functional, decorative, and symbolic objects. Analyzing different types of findings, including fabric imprints in clay, pictorial representations on walls, ceramics, metals, stones, bones, and written sources, can provide insights into the production and use of textiles. When these forms of evidence are unavailable, analyzing the various shapes, dimensions, and spatial arrangements of textile-making tools can yield valuable information. This study focuses on elucidating the role of fabric and its production in the community inhabiting the Donja Dolina site in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the late Bronze and Iron Ages. The research aims to uncover possible yarn and fabric production techniques based on remnants of fabric and textile production tools, as well as to understand the organization of these activities within the community. It hypothesizes that textile production was a ubiquitous activity in Donja Dolina, employing techniques similar to those used in other parts of Iron Age Europe. Another objective is to identify similarities and differences in the economic aspects of textile craftsmanship at a regional level and to discuss the possibility of discerning connections and communications among communities through material comparisons with nearby sites. The study also aims to distinguish the functional use of textile-making tools from the symbolic connotations attributed to these items when placed in graves. Such data contribute to discussions on the identity, social role, and status of textile producers, with a focus on the hypothesis that women predominantly participated in textile craftsmanship, influencing the metaphorical association between femininity and textile production. Textile archaeology The field of textile archaeology encompasses the study of textile remnants found during archaeological excavations. Different types of microscopy, such as digital, light, or scanning electron microscopy (SEM), along with computer tomography (CT) and 3D analysis, enable the examination and visualization of technical characteristics of archaeological textile finds. This includes distinguishing between layers of different fabrics, identifying weaving types, spinning methods, and even types of fiber. Alternatively, in cases where no organic or mineralized textile remains are found at archaeological sites, the entire production process can be reconstructed based on finds of textile-making tools. These tools provide insights into material gathering, preparation, spinning, weaving, and final product creation. Textile remnants in archaeology, typically crafted from materials like wool, silk, flax, or cotton, are notably rare due to their perishable nature. Their susceptibility to biodegradation, influenced by factors such as moisture and temperature, means that these materials naturally deteriorate over time. However, under specific environmental conditions, these materials can withstand decay and remain preserved until excavation. Additionally, textile fragments in contact with metals may undergo preservation through corrosion, albeit often at the cost of color retention and structural integrity. Through the process of mineralization, organic fiber remnants become gradually encased by metal ions, thereby preserving fabric impressions or casts. The analysis of well-preserved mineralized textiles unveils various technical characteristics, shedding light on ancient weaving techniques and material properties. Furthermore, impressions of textiles found on durable materials like fired clay or plaster offer valuable insights into weave structure and material characteristics, frequently occurring as byproducts of the manufacturing process. Moreover, information about textiles can be gleaned from diverse sources, including written records and artistic depictions, offering glimpses into past fabric production processes and clothing styles. In the absence of direct textile finds, examining the tools utilized in their production provides a comprehensive view of the entire production process. This interdisciplinary approach not only elucidates production techniques but also unveils insights into economic organization and symbolic meanings associated with these tools. The complex process of textile production involves various stakeholders and factors from raw material collection to the shaping of the final textile product. The textile production process begins with obtaining and preparing raw fibers, including shearing and processing with tools like combs and carding paddles, although documented finds of such equipment are rare and often degraded. Spinning follows, achieved with various techniques and spindle types, although archaeological finds of spinning tools are uncommon, with only numerous and abundant clay spindle whorls providing some insight. Weaving comes next, marking a significant advancement in fabric production, with different types of looms dominating textile production in various regions. Innovations like twill weave or tablet weaving during the Bronze and Iron Ages introduced complexities to achieve desired fabric patterns. The final stage involves dyeing, bleaching, ironing, finishing, cutting, and sewing. Natural dyes were commonly used, while fabric finishing tools like ceramic "smoothers" may have been employed for various purposes. Woolen fabric was often fulled after weaving, and garments were cut and sewn using needles, knives and shears. Donja Dolina The Donja Dolina site, located on the right bank of the Sava River near present-day Gradiška in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a significant prehistoric site in the Sava River Basin. It served as a prominent settlement and river crossing during the Bronze and Iron Ages, possibly functioning as a distribution and communication center within the surrounding area. The Sava River likely served as a crucial communication route connecting various geographical regions, including the Southeastern Alps, the Pannonian Plain, the Danube Basin, and the Balkans. The prehistoric site comprises two phases of settlement and necropolis from the early and late Iron Ages, stretching from Gornja Dolina to the eastern slopes of Gradina in Donja Dolina. The settlements were located north of the embankment, while the cemetery was situated north and south of the embankment on Timenačka Greda. The site was initially discovered through accidental surface findings. Subsequently, systematic archaeological excavations were conducted under the direction of Ćiro Truhelka from the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, lasting from 1899 to 1904. Truhelka identified and explored the pile-dwelling settlement on Gradina near the Sava River, along with associated burials linked to the inhabitants of the settlement. His excavations revealed the remains of houses, allowing for potential reconstructions and interpretations of their use. The archaeological probes yielded a variety of artifacts, including pottery, metal weapons, tools, personal adornments, and functional items such as millstones and loom weights, providing insights into the daily life of the prehistoric community at the Donja Dolina site. Donja Dolina's cultural richness led to it becoming the namesake of the Donja DolinaSanski Most Iron Age cultural group. This designation, introduced by B. Čović in 1987, heavily relies on the site's chronology, revised for this purpose and linked to broader Eastern Alpine and Glasinac Iron Age contexts. Textile production tools from Donja Dolina Analysis of the morphological characteristics of textile-making objects can contribute to a better understanding of the archaeological context of a particular site or geographic area in a prehistoric or historical period. The dimensions, mass, and ratio of these objects are crucial factors in selecting items for spinning or weaving. In this study, a total of 2,887 items were processed, including 1,995 spindle whorls, 569 loom weights, 290 bobbins, and 33 smoothers (Figure 20). It's worth noting that ceramic smoothers were only partially examined, with only representative samples analyzed, which may not fully represent the collection at the Donja Dolina site in the inventory of the Sarajevo Museum. These objects were examined using data categories adapted from the CTR Textile Tools Database. Each artifact was assigned a unique number and recorded with its find spot location and material composition. Dimensions were measured digitally, and surface treatments, usage traces, and damages were noted. Mineralized textile remnants in metal corrosion and fabric impressions in fired clay were also analyzed using digital microscopy. Traces of mineralized textile were scarce and poorly preserved among metal artifacts, with only one organic textile sample found in fragile condition. The digital microscope documented fabric type, thread density, twist direction, and thickness where visible. Additionally, surface ornamentation on some spindle whorls was examined through imprint analysis and photographed for documentation. These detailed analyses provide valuable insights into textile production techniques and materials used in the Donja Dolina site. Spindle whorls Spindle whorls play a crucial role in spinning yarn, and are scrutinized in this study, revealing key insights into their material composition, dimensions, classifications, and functional roles. Contextual information is scant, hampering chronological assignment, yet spindle whorls from graves show a trend of more elaborate decorations in older burials, particularly during the 6th century BCE. Predominantly made from fired clay, they exhibit diameters ranging from 1.3 cm to 7.9 cm and heights from 0.2 cm to 5.9 cm. Most fall within the width range of 2.9 cm to 4.9 cm and the height range of 1.4 cm to 2.8 cm, although outliers surpass 8 cm in width and 4 cm in height. Perforation diameters vary widely, suggesting adaptability to thicker spindle shafts. They are classified into five mass groups, ranging from very light to very heavy, with a predominant number of those characterized as light and medium, suitable for a wide array of spinning outcomes. Lighter whorls likely produced finer yarns, while heavier ones were suited for thicker fibers or served as loom weights. They exhibit diverse shapes, including spherical, biconical, lenticular, conical, cylindrical, discoid, and occasional unique forms. Decorated surfaces, adorned with various motifs, are common, though not correlated with specific shapes. Despite copious signs of use, such as friction wear or damage, only about 6% of whorls had a finely polished surface, while around 2% showed minimal or no damage, suggesting limited or short-term use. Loom-weights The study investigates loom-weights alongside spindle whorls as crucial artifacts related to textile production. These weights, utilized to tension warp threads on weaving looms, exhibit significant variability in material composition and craftsmanship. While predominantly fashioned from coarse clay, finer clay is employed for smaller weights, resulting in smoother surfaces with clearer markings. Evidence suggests their suspension for weaving setups, indicated by grooves and distortions around perforations. The majority of weights, found in undefined settlement areas, span a broad chronological range from the 7th to the early 3rd century BCE. Weights from Donja Dolina display significant variability in dimensions, with heights ranging from 3.5 cm to over 20 cm, an average of 11 cm, and a median of 11.4 cm. Thickness spans from 1.1 cm to 16 cm, averaging 7.8 cm with a median of 8.2 cm, while width ranges from 2.2 cm to 14.5 cm, averaging 7.3 cm with a median of 6.9 cm. The ratio of height to width and thickness influences their final shape, adjusted during production to optimize their function on the weaving loom. Perforation dimensions correlate with weight size, with smaller weights featuring smaller perforations on average. Weight mass ranges from 24 g to 2259 g, with outliers exceeding 5000 g; however, extremely heavy weights exhibit no discernible differences in shaping or markings. Categorized into seven mass-based groups, the majority fall into the very light (32%) and mediumheavy (28%) categories. Ceramic weights primarily assume pyramidal and trapezoidal shapes, with over half bearing markings or decorations common in the Eastern Hallstatt Circle region and areas around the Mediterranean during the pre-Roman period. Spools Spools, often associated with textile production, have been subject to diverse interpretations in archaeology. While commonly seen as objects for winding and storing yarn or as weights for smaller looms, larger specimens challenge this notion. The spools from Donja Dolina were made of fired clay, with the majority crafted from coarser mixtures with additives, including a higher amount of organic material, especially common in very large spools. The average height of all spools measures 6.1 cm with a lower median of 5.3 cm. Width ranges from 2.3 to 6.8 cm, with an average of 4.6 cm for both upper and lower bases. Spools are categorized by height and relative width, impacting their final shape. They are categorized into 5 groups based on their shape, and most have a circular cross-section. Only two spools have perforations, both considered exceptions. The overall mass ranges from just under 7 g to 825 g, with an average weight of around 157 g. The median mass for spools is 91 g, and there is a noticeable gap in mass span with a difference of over 100g two possible loom-groups. Spools weighing less than 177 g may have been used for yarn storage or as small weights for passing the weft during weaving, while larger spools, especially those heavier than 500 g, could have been used as loom-weights. These could have been used concurrently with other weights shown in this study, corresponding to categories of light, medium-heavy, and heavy weights. Smaller spools have more varied markings on their surfaces, with only around 15% displaying any form of marking. The most common markings are circular, followed by cross-shaped decorations. These marks might serve functional purposes or decorative ones, although their exact significance remains uncertain. Only a few spools show signs of surface smoothing, while around 20% exhibit possible signs of secondary firing, ranging from lightly cracked surfaces to partial vitrification. Damage to the spools mostly involves chipped parts of the base or larger sections of the spool, likely occurring during use or from pressure after deposition. However, a few spools display thin, linear marks on the body, possibly from pre-deposition use, indicating friction between the fired clay surface and wound thread. Only one spool was found in a burial context, while others were discovered in or around buildings or as surface finds. The dating of these finds is challenging due to incomplete records. Smoothers Smoother are objects characterized by a flat or slightly curved surface atop a horizontal base with an upright handle. Despite being rarely mentioned in literature, their purpose remains elusive. While sometimes considered tools for clay surface finishing, their definitive use is uncertain. Due to their similarity to stamps, this study suggests their potential use in textile production for smoothing fabrics or applying pigment. However, this hypothesis requires confirmation through archaeological experiments. A total of 33 items in this category were examined. All were made of fired clay, although some have been reconstructed, thus making them inadequate for statistical analysis. They range in height from approximately 4 cm to 11 cm, with an average height of 7 cm. Handles may be cylindrical or strip-like, with a thickness averaging about 2.6 cm. Bases can be flat or curved, with dimensions ranging from 2.7 to 6.1 cm in thickness and 4.1 to 11.8 cm in width. Perforations are found in 6 specimens, typically below the upper edge of the handle, with diameters between 0.4 and 0.9 cm, likely serving a practical function such as hanging the smoother when not in use or securing it during smoothing or pleating. The mass of all smoothers ranges from approximately 61 to 241 g, with one outlier weighing around 373 g. On average, ironers weigh about 122 grams, but the median is considerably lower at around 100 g. Generally, these are relatively small and light objects that could be easily handled with one hand. They are divided into 6 different categories based on the shape of the base and additional subcategories based on the shape of the handle. Since archaeological experiments on smoothing or pleating fabrics with such items have not yet been conducted, it is not possible to determine whether the weight, size, or curvature of the object's base surface affects the final result. Most smoothers lack extensive surface treatment, displaying rough surfaces. Only four specimens have fully or partially smoothed surfaces. Besides those with perforated handles, only one smoother features a deliberately engraved cross on the upper surface of the handle. Due to the absence of comparative material and experimental data, it's uncertain whether marks on the base result from textile smoothing or other activities. These include smoothed areas and thin, nearly invisible parallel lines. The origin and context of the smoothers analyzed in this study remain unclear which results in a wide dating range, indicating they were likely used during the Iron Age when the community in the Donja Dolina region occupied the Gradina hillfort (7th century BCE to 4th/3rd century BCE). Thread impressions on surfaces of spindle whorls and textile remains from Donja Dolina In the absence of organic textile remains, textile archaeology greatly benefits from findings such as imprints of threads or fabric in clay and mineralized textile residues preserved in corrosion of metal objects. In the case of Donja Dolina, the imprints of threads present on the spindles analyzed in this study are significant. These imprints are treated as decorations on the surface of the spindle whorls while the analysis of the imprints themselves and the reconstruction of the appearance of threads impressed into wet clay contributes to the understanding of textile production in Donja Dolina. A total of 43 spindle whorls, mostly conical and lenticular, were analyzed. These spindle whorls exhibited no significant differences in dimensions or weight compared to the overall collection, averaging 30.3 grams. They were commonly found in the pile-dwelling area of Donja Dolina, with most lacking specific discovery locations. The thread imprints fall into A (vertical lines), D (zigzag lines), E (concentric semicircles and circles), and G (various motifs) decoration pattern categories. These patterns were created by impressing threads into moist clay. Most imprints show that the threads used were plied of two single threads. The imprints predominantly display a Z-directional ply, indicating that threads with an S-ply were commonly used (53%). Approximately 20% of spindles feature imprints made by simultaneously impressing threads twisted in S and Z directions, with category D showing a notable combination of both twists. The twist angle suggests that 30% of threads were moderately tightly spun, while 70% were tightly spun. Thread diameter ranges from 0.7 to 1.6 mm, with an average minimum diameter of 1 mm and an average maximum diameter of 1.3 mm. On the surface of each spindle-whorl, there was an average difference of about 0.3 mm between minimum and maximum thread imprint diameters, possibly due to using different parts of the thread for decoration or varying depths of impression in wet clay. Overall, moderately fine to coarse, plied threads (0.7 to 1.5 mm) were likely used for decorating spindles in Donja Dolina. Thicker threads were likely chosen for their visual impact, especially when impressed into clay before firing. Aside from these data, additional direct information on thread and fabric production in Donja Dolina has been obtained by analyzing mineralized and organic textile remains. Unfortunately, these textile fragments are poorly preserved, with most fragments smaller than 1 cm2 . Overall, nine samples were analyzed from three different graves. In the double-inhumation burial 3 at Greda S. Čegrlja a mineralized fabric residue, possibly part of a yarn, was observed on one piece of the Donja Dolina type pin. The fibers are poorly preserved and partially mineralized, making it challenging to discern their properties. These fabric remnants may represent burial textiles or clothing of the deceased, preserved due to rapid mineralization of the metal artifact. The diameter of the individual fibers ranges between 0.02 and 0.05 mm, averaging about 0.04 mm. The angle and direction of twist of the yarn cannot be determined due to the small sample size. In the second, unnumbered double-burial grave at Greda N. Šokića, seven different samples of mineralized threads and textile were analyzed. Fabric samples found on fibulae around the deceased female's chest suggest they were part of the burial attire, likely adorning or fastening the clothing. The grave's richness, with numerous elaborate jewelry items, suggests the fabric was of exceptional quality, possibly indicating clothing for special occasions or a prominent individual's burial. The textile was poorly preserved but some fragments showed rests of a fine tabby weave while the average single thread diameter showed the use of fine thread, the diameter ranging from 0.18-0.5 mm. The final sample examined in this investigation is a yarn fragment discovered alongside a deceased individual interred in an oak coffin beneath House IV in the pile-dwelling area. Likely constituting a cluster of tangled fibers and plied threads, approximately 10 cm long and 3 cm wide, their function appears to have been as part of a tangled rope, potentially used to secure items within the coffin. Yarn thickness varies from 0.3 mm to 1 mm, with evidence suggesting some yarns consist of multiple strands around 1 mm thick. However, most yarns are obscured by an unknown substance, limiting surface visibility despite the fibers being relatively discernible due to their fragile nature. Fiber thickness ranges from 0.03 to 0.09 mm, averaging about 0.06 mm (60 μm). Determining twist direction and angle proved challenging, with only two instances suggesting a clockwise direction of twist (Z direction) at angles of 31° to 40°, indicating moderately spun yarn. Textile production tools and textile remains as a means to discovering past community organizations and individual identities The settlement at Donja Dolina exhibited a varied yarn production, ranging from extremely fine threads to thicker, possibly plied yarns. In Donja Dolina, textile production was a daily practice, involving hand spinning and weaving on warp-weighted looms, similar to other prehistoric European communities. However, the shaping of textile-making tools varied, even within neighboring regions. Notably, in the Posavina region and Srijem, medium-weight, biconical, and lenticular spindle whorls, often decorated with spirals and circles, were common. Donja Dolina stood out in the region with larger spools and heavy weights, suggesting innovations in weaving techniques, likely influenced by its strategic location and significant role in regional textile production. Analysis of mineralized fabric remnants suggests the prevalence of single, thin woollen yarn in clothing production, aligning with the textile patterns of the Eastern Hallstatt circle. However, the presence of medium and large spindle whorls indicates a shift towards thicker yarns, potentially made of flay or even lied yarn. Similarly, findings regarding loom weights suggest a range of fabric types produced, with lighter weights possibly used for fine weaves and heavier weights for larger pieces. The discovery of exceptionally large weights hints at the introduction of new weaving techniques. Additionally, smoothers may have played a role in fabric finishing processes. Textile symbolism is significant in early Iron Age burials across Central Europe, the southeastern Hallstatt region, and the southern Carpathian Basin, including Donja Dolina. About 25% of graves in Donja Dolina contained decorated spindle whorls. Analysis suggests spindle whorls were more common in graves without weapons, possibly indicating the important role of women in textile production. However, their presence doesn't always correlate with the social status of the deceased. Interestingly, some graves with typical female attire lacked textile production accessories, suggesting spindle whorls weren't solely symbols of female identity but possibly indicated only some women's involvement in textile production. The lack of anthropological sex determination complicates gender identification in graves, and future data may clarify the significance of textile accessories in burial contexts. |
